Civil Liberties vs National Security

In U. S. , the bill of rights protects civil liberties. People in the United States, hold civil rights, which are those privileges, immunities and rights held by all Americans and political rights, which are the rights that are restricted to those who are entitled to participate in elections, as candidates or voters. The distinction is important since not all are eligible to vote though they all should enjoy their freedoms. This may no longer be feasible as majority of the civil rights are taken to include the political rghts in this age. National security can be defined as a country's need to maintain its survival by use of military, political and economic power for diplomacy. Civil liberty are freedoms and rights exercised by individuals in any country provided by their country's legislation or international laws, for example the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of expression, the right to privacy, the right to security and liberty and many more. National security issues arose after the second world war in the united states of America with initial emphasis on the military. For any country in this day and age, national security encompasses energy security, economic security, environmental security and many more. Security threats range not only from external states but also from illegal drug cartels, multi-national organizations and terrorists groups. The civil liberty concepts are protected under a country's constitution, bill of rights. Other legal legislation are also adopted by country's to uphold this civil liberties by giving effect to international laws passed in conventions such as the International Covenant and Political Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights. The protection of civil rights is deemed as the responsibility of a country's people and government. The extent of some civil liberties, such as reproductive rights, property rights and several others are subject of debate. The debate of whether or not civil liberties should or can be infringed to ensure national security has been subject to never ending debate. The extent to which civil liberties can be altered and, or suspended with respect to the security of a nations interests calls for a reat deal of care in striking the correct balance. Posner (2001) disputes the ideology of civil libertarians that national security will lead to an erosion of civil liberties. He proposes that the basic mistake is the prioritizing of liberty and is both a mistake about history as well as law when it comes to striking the needed balance between civil freedoms and national security. In his view, under law, these civil rights can rarely be altered to suit the time within which they exist to uphold the same rights as before. Cole (2002), in contrast states that the nation's response to national security threats has time and again infringed civil rights. The Supreme Court of the United State's in tandem acknowledges that, â€Å"History abundantly documents the tendency of Government, however benevolent and benign its motives -to view with suspicion those who most fervently dispute its policies. † that said, this is not a problem that is unique to the United States, but the constitutional structures, political will and religious structures do not protect the people's rights. He further points out that our governments subvert the freedoms that constitute the defense in the well being of a nation. Glenn Greenwald talks of the misconception of combating terror in the name of national security while upholding civil liberties. He emphasis that the meaning of this civil rights has been distorted and often misunderstood due to the description of combating terrorism to preserve national security. The meaning of terrorism has been built on the notion that, if one was not on our side then they were definitely against us. This has grown fear within people that infringe on basic human rights e. g of residence, movement, expression, association and many more. The misinterpretation of upholding national security ends up marginalizing and curtailing the freedoms of some of the patriotic residents who may be involved directly or indirectly with particular religions and groups seen as potential threats. The F. B. I, has significant legal powers, excellent resources, and a jurisdiction that has overseas coverage. They have in recent years penetrated and prosecuted many organized criminal gangs, uncovered public corruption and successfully caught up with terror attacks. Still the same F. B. I has curtailed the basic freedoms of association, speech e. t. c The bureau while protecting their national security freedoms has infringed the human rights by disrupting and neutralizing peaceful protests. It has more so focused its resources on neutralizing and curbing political activity other than investigate criminal activities. The force, does not have accountability to the the public while incriminates on the basis of association instead of relying hard facts and evidence to get hold of the real criminals. The adoption of legislation such as the Anti-terrorism Act (1996), is a good indicator of past injustices and the unrestricted investigations by the bureau based on political agendas. The Act's deliberate criminalization of peaceful activity gave the F. B. I. leverage to involve itself in the religious, ethnic and political grouping involving themselves in peaceful and humanitarian work. Afterwards, it grew to encourage politically motivated investigations. The deportation and exclusion of immigrants on the basis of guilt of association completely discredits the protection of the civil rights. Other legislations such as the enactment of the secret evidence against alleged terrorists infringed on their basic freedoms e. g the right to confront one's accusers. For any society, political freedom is key, thus allowing peaceful ways to express their dissatisfaction which in turn initiates social change. Civil rights have been infringed since the legal regime established under Presidents Roosevelt, Truman and Eisenhower who facilitated the worst abuses in the FBI's history, and eventually led to reforms. The FBI under new and better legislation undertook an intensive campaign with the aim of capturing suspected Communists,. The committees that were set up drew up lists and constructed links among organizations. They were confronted with incriminating evidence with no room for self defense and compelling testimonies from individuals who lost their jobs if they did not agree to testify, and to some extent were locked up. Posner insists that these freedom should be curtailed up to the point where the benefits outweigh the costs of reduced liberty. In all this, legislation ought to be responsible as well as the officials so that they maintain the balance between the civil liberties and national security. History depicts officials generally exaggerate the dangers to the country's security which is not entirely true. Officials tasked with the responsibility to estimate the occurrences and magnitude of these dangers failed, thus led to the occurrences e. the civil war of Japan on the U. S that led to the distraction at Pearl Harbor,of Soviet espionage in the 1940s, the September 11 attacks and many more. The Government in times of crisis, will exercise its power to conduct a comprehensive domestic intelligence. The difference between legal dissent and criminal conduct is often forgotten. The work of the church, is to recommend means to make sure that the distinction will always be observed. The unfortunate bit arises when, you incompatible and outdated ways to deal with issues that threaten your national security. Legislations that deem an individual guilty by association of group, color, race, religion should be put aside to ensure that the fundamental rights of each human being are respected and up held. In the ongoing balancing debate between civil liberties and national security is never ending. However, the constitution has an already balanced point between personal freedoms and government power. Hence the curtailing of individual rights is a personal decision or the government's irresponsibility with the power vested in it by the same people it ought to protect. Anti-terrorism can be used as a measure to the extent of infringing right. Despite the intense war to eradicate terrorism everywhere, the terrorist threat in reality cannot be eliminated. We need to come up with very good responses. However, this should be careful planned out and executed to avoid sacrificing the fundamental principles that constitute our democratic identity. Otherwise, it is best is to follow our liberal principles, to use the set criminal laws to punish and prosecute those who plan or carry out violent deeds and encourage critics of our government into the practice of tolerance and democracy.

How Milton develops Paradise Lost against Epic Tradition Essay

One of the passages in Paradise Lost is â€Å"Answerable Style† specifically the Genre of Paradise Lost wherein the main concern of Milton pertains to which genre must be chosen and not just a simple matter to seek the story’s perfect medium but the writer’s anxiety in placing himself with the poetic tradition known as old centuries. With his decision in writing an epic, Milton was able to place himself in the writers’ epic tradition like for instance the Medieval and Renaissance poets Dante. The content of the Paradise Lost is the classical and epic conceits in the Renaissance concerning heavenly beings with the possible interaction while using the epic similes as well as the places and people’s catalogues with muse invocations. This means that the themes’ content is usually common to epics like for example war, its nationalism, the empire and the origin stories. Another passage in Paradise Lost is â€Å"Things invisible to mortal sight†, which means the classical epics of gods and goddesses and the desires including disagreements are mirroring the human but that of Milton is omnipresent and also invisible. Milton’s God cannot be compared to any individual because of His existence. In Paradise Lost, the story was inspired by the heavenly muse wherein fallen humans are unknowable. God’s portrayal by Milton became the subject of such debate among those scholars as well as critics. Still Milton believes in God’s power and yet explains the foreknowledge of fall and yet human beings may even fall to temptations because of free will given by God to choose and made a decision for them. This is not comparable with those gods as well as goddesses in terms of the epics in classic because of different views and beliefs but still Milton has his own presentation in his belief with God.

Active contours

Active contours Active contours are one category of variational methods that have been used widely within image segmentation applications. An energy functional is defined with arguments as the image parameters and a closed curve that partitions the objects in the image. There are two main methods of representing the curves such as (a) extrinsic and (b) intrinsic. Extrinsic representation keeps function values at boundary points. Intrinsic lets use of functions that are defined on all the point of the image and are more desirable. Intrinsic representation of a planar curve C using an auxiliary function is denoted as C = f(x; y) j (x; y) = 0g (22) where (x; y) is called level set function of curve C and the zero level of (x; y) is taken as the contour. Curvature  of the closed curve C with level set function  is given by  = div( 5 k5k ) (23) The deformation of the contour is reprsented in a numerical form as a partial differential equation @(x;y) @t =j 5(x; y) j ( + ((x; y))) (24) where  is a constant speed term to push or pull the contour. Mean curvature of the level set function is defined as: ((x; y)) = xx2 yà ´Ã‚€Â€Â€2xyxy+yy2 x (2 x+2 y)3=2 (25) where x is the first derivative with respect to x and xx is the second derivative with respect to x. The role of the curvature term is to control the regularity of the contour and  controls the balance between the regularity and robustness of the contour. Chan Vese formulated the energy function F in terms of an internal force Eint and an external force Eext F(C) = R 1 0 [Eint(C(S)) + Eext(C(S))]ds (26) Eint = length(C) + Area(Cin) (27) Eext = R Cin j I(x; y) à ´Ã‚€Â€Â€ I1 j2 + R Cout j I(x; y) à ´Ã‚€Â€Â€ I2 j2 (28) where  and  are positive fixed parameters which help to smoothen the growing contour. I(x; y) is intensity value of image region and I1 and I2 are average intensity value inside and outside the object region, respectively. IV. IMPLEMENTATION AND ANALYSIS All qualitative and quantitative outcome of the algorithm were recorded by running the Matlab programs with Intel(R) Core (TM) i7 CPU, 3.4 GHz, 4 GB RAM with Matlab 14 (a) on Windows 8. A. Description of Test Data The dataset used in the proposed algorithm consists of scanned images of stained breast biopsy slides from MITOS dataset [35]. Each set is composed of 96 high power field (HPF) images of breast tissue scanned at 40X magnification using two different scanners, Aperio (AP) and Hamamatsu (HM), with a resolution of 0.23-0.24 m:. All the images are 1376  1539  3 size. B. Experimental Strategies This paper qualitatively and quantitatively compares the KHO based optimal nuclei detection performance with the watershed based detection done by S. Ali et al. [8] and blue ratio image based detection done by Irshad et al. [21]. The segmentation performance is compared with local threshold method done by Cheng Lu et al. [22]. 1) Experiment 1: Evaluating the optimal threshold value: Goal of this experiment was to prove the power of KHO based optimal thresholding to detect the exact nuclei regions in histology images. It also compares the optimum value of the threshold obtained by KHO in breast histopathology images with GA, HSA and BFA. 2) Experiment 2: Comparison of Detection Accuracy: Aim of this work is to validate the detection performance of the proposed technique against the watershed and blue ratio techniques in terms of detection sensitivity and precision. 3) Experiment 3: Comparison of Segmentation Accuracy: This evaluates the performance of the detection algorithm in ACM segmentation and compare the results against two state-of-the-art techniques in terms of boundary based distance measures. This experiment also measure the strength of the algorithm to resolve the touching nuclei in terms of touching nuclei resolution.1) Evaluation of Detection Performance: This paper qualitatively and quantitatively evaluates the application of optimal thresholding in nuclei detection performance. The mean objective value and standard deviation express the consistency and stability of the algorithms. The results obtained by KHO are compared with GA, HSA and BFA. The parameters used in these algorithms are given in Table II.The quantitative evaluation of detection performance is carried out by locating the centroid of detected nuclear regions. The measures used to assess the nuclei detection comprise of: 1) Sensitivity (SD); 2) Positive Predictive value or Precision (PD); and 3) F-measure (FD) as given in eq. (26), (27), and (28), respectively. The results obtained are compared with manual detection results by an expert pathologist. The SD and PD values are computed from the number of truepositives (number of correctly detected nuclei, Ntp) , falsepositives (number of wrongly identified nuclei, Nfp) and false negatives(number of nuclei not detected by the algorithm, Nfn). The detected object is considered as true positive if its centroid is within 10 pixels range of manually determined centroid location. If no centroid was manually located within

Group Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Group Analysis - Essay Example The primary focus in this paper will be on group work. A group is a coalition of individuals who require each at different levels so that they can work on a certain common problem. In a group, there is need to use each other and create helping relationships which is very vital to any group process. However, it is not a guarantee that when individuals come together aid will emerge. There are many obstacles that can block the ability of the members of the group to reach one another and offer help. The group members have to learn how to cope with developmental and maturational tasks and demands that require adaptation and changes within the group (Greene and Greene, 2008). The group that is our class started on August 30, 2010. At the beginning, there was no much interaction because every one was a stranger to one another. The first thing an individual feels when meeting people in a group for the first time in many cases is fear. Shulman (2008) describes it as fear-of-group syndrome. The first concept is the fear-of-group syndrome. Feeling unease is common thing when meeting people for the first time. One clearly notes this is the beginning phase of a group during introductions. The fear-of-group syndrome emerges at this point (Shulman, 2008). The tone of the voice may suggest that this person has never led a group or worked in a group. An individual may decide to keep quiet because of fear and this can result to the individual withdraw from the group’s activities. During the beginning of our class, some students were afraid of introducing themselves or opening up to other members of the group. The tone of voice in some indicated that they were not that willing to interact with the rest of the group. The second concept is discussing a taboo area. Norms and taboos are different in each community. Re-creation of a group into a micro-society involves bringing together norms, rules, expectations and taboos from the group members’ experiences. A difficult task

Audible Company Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Audible Company - Term Paper Example The business environment is defined by both external and internal factors. The external factors are beyond the business control, but they impact on the organization’s operations. The analysis of the external factors enables an organization to recognize opportunities that it can easily tap into and the threat that are restricting its operations. The Porter’s five analysis- competition, entry barriers, and buyer-supplier behavior- are very crucial when identifying the (OT) strategies (David). Conversely, the internal business environment includes all those activities that the firm can control. These factors include products produced, market share and segmentation, revenue versus cost analysis among others. The value chain identifies the factors that are used commonly used by firms in their operational activities especially the internal factors to deliver a quality product. The analysis of internal factors and value chain is thus important in establishing the strengths and weakness (SW) a firm possess in a given industry.  A firm’s elements of strategy involve an integrated set of choice that addresses how it will achieve its set objectives and goals. The key elements commonly referred to as five elements of the strategy include arenas, differentiators, vehicles, staging and economic logic. The following are the Audible’s company 5 elements of strategy:†¢ The company identified the digital platform and the use of the internet to provide content in audio format as its strategic arena.

Abudhabi Financial Market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Abudhabi Financial Market - Essay Example The laws and regulation of the financial market are favorable for investment. The financial market of Abu Dhabi is on the verge of expansion with the proposed establishment of the world financial market in Abu Dhabi by the end of 2013. Executive Summary The operations of the financial markets of Abu Dhabi have been explained in this work. The various sectors, financial institution and companies comprising the financial markets of Abu Dhabi have been identified. The places of the trading in the financial markets, operational performance of the market and the risk associated with the operations of the financial market in Abu Dhabi have been explained. The rational behind the investors’ preference towards Abu Dhabi financial market has been analyzed by the estimation of risk-return trade off. The proposed plans of expansion of the Abu Dhabi financial market have been indicated through this work. The policies of the Abu Dhabi financial market in order to encourage foreign investme nts have been analyzed. Operations The financial market of Abu Dhabi is comprised of companies in the financial industry that includes the banking sector and the insurance sector. There are as many as seventeen banks that operate in the financial market of Abu Dhabi. There are no less than twelve insurance companies in the financial market of Abu Dhabi. ... Abu Dhabi Securities Exchange is the stock exchange of United Arab Emirates that conducts trading of shares and securities of the markets of Abu Dhabi that also includes the financial market of Abu Dhabi. The securities and shares of sixty seven companies in Abu Dhabi are traded in Abu Dhabi Securities Exchange. Apart from the financial sector, the companies listed in Abu Dhabi Securities Exchange also represent the services industry, industrial and hospitality sector, real estate, telecommunication, energy, etc. The various sectors whose stocks are listed in the Abu Dhabi financial market are given below with values in local currency (Abu Dhabi Securities Exchange, 2013). The Abu Dhabi Securities Exchange was established in the year 2000 for the purpose of trading of shares of the companies in United Arab Emirates. The trading locations of the Abu Dhabi Securities Exchange are at Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ras Al Khaimah, Fujeirah, Al Ain. The Dubai Stock Exchange is a different sock excha nge in United Arab Emirates that trades shares of other public limited companies of UAE. However, some of the stocks listed in the Abu Dhabi Securities Exchange could also be traded through brokers in the Dubai Stock Exchange. The performance of the stocks of the Abu Dhabi Financial Market for the last one year is represented in the graph given below (BLOOMBERG, 2013). The above graphical representation of the performance of financial market of Abu Dhabi shows that the financial markets have undergone steady growth pattern in the last one year with less fluctuations of the performance of stocks listed in the financial market. The fluctuations or the volatility of the stocks in the financial market has

Discus and Biomechanics Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Discus and Biomechanics - Term Paper Example It was first introduced in the modern sporting event in the 1896 Olympic Games. This maiden appearance marked the dominance of the sport in the Olympic Games (Leigh & Yu, 2007). Moreover, interest in the sport has increased significantly. In Europe mostly, the sport has become a famous trend in field and track competitions. Over the years, the track and field event has featured in major global arenas such as the Olympics and has attracted the participation of numerous personalities and nations (Hay& Yu, 1995). Its development has been gradual. Prior to attaining global significance, early modern participation in the sport was a throw from an inclined pedestal and employed an exaggerated style copied from the old representation of the event. The throw was done from a 7-foot circle. It was until 1928 that the circle was adjusted to the measurements used in the modern sporting events. In addition, the modern sport is divided into the men and women categories. The two divisions differentiate in the weight and size of the discus used. The disc has a diameter of 8.16 inches. The thickness should be 1.75 inches (Hay& Yu, 1995). The discus is made of wood or a material with similar properties. The outside of the discus is created with metal rims and small brass plated on its sides. The weight of the discus must exceed 2 kg. In 1928, the sport was included in the women’s track and field events. However, a small discus was used for women. The discus weighed 2 pounds 3.2 ounce (1kg). It measu res 7.1 inches (Hay& Yu, 1995). The major objective of the sport is to increase the participation of athletes in track and field sporting events (Hubbard & Cheng, 2007). In addition, its adaption as an Olympic event had the objective of retaining its relevance considering its great history. The creation of the sport was based on the aim to include more sports disciplines in the track and field events. Its purpose in has been influenced by the fact that the

Choice and Relevance of the Name Healer to Refer Nurses Research Paper

Choice and Relevance of the Name Healer to Refer Nurses - Research Paper Example Nurses, given their delicate position and weird characters occupying the world, attract ridicule in order to undermine their work. This paper discusses some effects that these ridicules that include nicknames might have, and finds out some of the ways these could be avoided in order to pursue the nursing career in full swing. The identity that the name ‘healers’ gives to the nurses sure uplifts their image and the impact of this is also discussed. Lastly, various perspectives from various spheres of the term ‘healer’ are compared with the current scenario and a conclusion summing up the general ideas of the paper finalizes the paper. Thesis: The name ‘healer’ is well deserved to nurses globally as they have shown the quality, commitment, compassion, and competence it takes to take part in the healing process of a patient, right from the beginning to the end. Introduction What rings in one’s mind with the mention of the word ‘Healer? ’ The obvious guess would be the good doctor. ...This argument may qualify the fact that indeed nurses are healers (Watson, 1985). A healer is defined as an individual who oversees the transformation of a patient from unsound or ill condition to a healthy form. Healing does not just comprise of putting one into a sound form, but rather, healing is an umbrella to many objectives that a patient should transcend on his or her way to recovery. These include psychological, physical and social healing. With the definition of healing looked at from this perception, one might rethink the reference of doctors as healers, and rather give that honor to the nurses. Nurses are professions in the medical world that carry the obligation of human care in the community, families or individual in order to foster recovery, maintain a healthy condition and live a healthy life. They have the most responsibility in the world of medicine apart from just being the doctor helper. They truly deserve t o be called ‘healers’ because they are involved with a patient right from the beginning, to that very moment that the patients depart from the hospital. This paper shall carefully analyze the weight that this name carries and try to find the basis of the whole process of naming and some of the factors that go along naming. The name ‘healer’ is well deserved to nurses globally as they have shown the quality, commitment, compassion, and competence it takes to take part in the healing process of a patient, right from the beginning to the end. What’s in a name? Names go beyond the essence of just identity.

Routine CT scanning protocols of head, chest and abdomen Essay

Routine CT scanning protocols of head, chest and abdomen - Essay Example As with the benefits of any new medical technology, CT also has its share of woes in terms of exposure of patients to high dose radiation. It is challenging to optimise and reduce the dose without compromising the image quality and resolution. This paper aims at bringing out optimization of the radiation dosage by modifying existing parameters based on latest discoveries and innovations. The most direct method of reducing the radiation dose reduction is that of decreasing the tube voltage and tube potential. However, the use of other techniques including Automatic Emission Control, Imaging Filters and Noise Reducing Filters also aid in reduction of radiation dosage without diminishing the image quality. The machines used for routine CT at KSMC are the General Electronics system, the Philips system and the Siemens Somatome Sensation 16 Slice. For this evaluation, I would focus on the Siemens system as my experience is confined to the same. The CT scanning protocols for head, chest and abdomen will be covered in this paper. CT can be performed with or without contrast and the procedure essentially depends on the physician performing the imaging procedure. Table 1 shows the numerous parameters and dimensions for the CT scan of the human skull using KSMC’s protocol. Skull imaginative view, reconnoitre vision of the brain SOM (supra orbito meatal) line are the baselines for this assessment. This protocol does not use IV contrast or oral contrast. The second protocol used is for mass lesion or tumour. The second protocol is similar to the first one but uses IV contrast that is set between 100cc to 120cc of Omnipaque 350. Patient preparation and training vary for protocols with and without contrast. In protocols using no contrast, patient training is not necessary, while procedures using contrast require that the four elementary steps be completed, the steps being; only one CT scan

Abortion should be illegal in the U.S Term Paper

Abortion should be illegal in the U.S - Term Paper Example This simplistic belief is accepted by some women but it is a flawed argument particularly when the compared to the realities of abortion. Research has shown that the majority of women are coerced into committing this heinous act, the killing of a living human being, and that the legalizing of abortion makes them a safe procedure as many are led to believe is very misleading. Pro-abortion proponents usually say that non-living tissue have no rights and that the fetus is not able to feels pain. This paper exposes these falsehoods and others that have been commonly thought are facts. It also speaks to the Constitution’s intent for the legal and ethical direction of American society. Women that are experiencing an unwanted pregnancy have little freedom of choice, especially now that abortion is legal. Under most circumstances women want to have their baby. Other important influences in her life such as friends, parents and especially husbands and boyfriends are usually the ones wh o put pressure on her to end the pregnancy. In many cases it’s the abortion, not the baby that is unwanted by the woman. More often than not, it’s the father of the child who is not wanting to accept responsibility who coerces the women into having an abortion. They may even threaten a woman until she consents to the procedure. â€Å"45 percent of men interviewed at abortion clinics recalled urging abortion, including 37 percent of married men. Men justified (this) being the primary decision maker, regarding the abortion.† (Shostak, McLouth, 1984). This study as well as other research has clearly shown that most women â€Å"choose† abortion against their own principles. A myth advocated as fact is that the fetus is nothing more than a collection of cells, a small piece of tissue unable to experience pain. A growing embryo has a distinctive set of fingerprints and a unique genetic pattern, different from its mother. It is a person. If society defines death as the heart stopping and murder as the intentional stopping of the heart then abortion must also be considered murder. If the beating heart is legally defined as life, then nearly all abortions should be illegal because the heart is fully formed before the third week in the womb. According to a British medical journal when an eight-week-old fetus is stuck with a pin, its mouth automatically opens up in a crying position and it instinctively pulls his hand away indicating pain. â€Å"By week five, eyes, legs, and hands begin to develop. By week six, brain waves are detectable, mouth and lips are present and fingernails are beginning to form. By the eighth week the baby can begin to hear. Every organ is in place, bones begin to replace cartilage, and fingerprints begin to form† (National Right to Life Foundation, n.d.).   ‘Pro Choice’ proponents claim that women should be allowed access to safe abortion procedures, which the government should not force women to resort to unsafe self-abortion procedures. They are working from a false premise again however. Nearly 100 percent of women say they feel extreme pain during the abortion procedure even with local anesthetics. â€Å"Despite the use of local anesthesia, a full 97 percent of women having abortions reported experiencing pain during the procedure, which more than a third described as intense,  severe or very severe. Compared to other pains, researchers have rated the pain from abortion as more painful than a bone fracture, about the same as cancer pain, though not as painful as an amputation.† (Wells, 1991). Although the word â€Å"abortion† is not in the Constitution, the country’s principal legal document remains the source for precedence for this and all other issues. The Court decided to rule based on the

A Christmas Carol Essay Example for Free

A Christmas Carol Essay Each day scrooge went back or forward too was on Christmas day or Christmas Eve. I the begging of A Christmas Carol scrooge was a horrible and stingy man things that show and prove this statement is when he said to Bob Cratchits Coal is costly this shows that scrooge is cheap and mean because he is wealthy but he doesnt want to keep himself warm because coal cost money. Coal doesnt coast a lot of money and lasts quite a long time but scrooge still doesnt want to spend money on it. Scrooge shows a lot of different signs of changing like when scrooge says, I fear you more than any spectre I have seen. You can tell he is changing at this point, by him saying this because he never wanted to show his emotions but now hes showing them and he is also saying his feelings aloud. Also before he couldnt show his feelings of sadness because he couldnt cry and you can tell this by in the novel it says his cold eye glisten so this shows he is changing emotionally. He shows other ways of changing such as when he (scrooge) says to the ghost Lead on! The night is waning fast, and it is precious time to me hes saying time is precious. This is because he wants to go back to reality and change his ways and do as much good as possible, that is what the readers will automatically think when they read this. This could also mean in a bad prospective that he knows that hes going to have a bad after life so he wants to go back to reality and live his life to the full and carry on doing bad selfish things but what he doesnt know is what the ghost was about to confront him with. But I think he wants to change because he has been given another chance. From this quote you can also see that he was willing to go with the ghost were as at the begging of the journey he didnt want to go with the ghost so therefore over all this quote shows that he is willing to change and go with the ghost and see whatever is about to confront him. Scrooge also says to show he was changing thank you spirit. I think scrooge is thanking the spirit for forgiving him for all the selfish and horrible things he had done in his life. This shows that he has changed because through the whole novel he has had no manners and has never thanked anyone one or even shown gratitude towards anyone so this shows he as changed. In stave 4 Scrooge says, I hope to live to be another man from what I was this shows that scrooge wants to change. When scrooge says this he sounds desperate to change because he is pleading. I think scrooge is so dedicated to change because his and other lives depend on it. I think scrooge feels like he is leading for his life. You can tell that the moral journey and change is done in stave 5 when scrooge kindly buys Cratchit and his family the biggest turkey in the store and he gives Bob Cratchit a raise. At this point in the novel scrooge seems and acts much happier and the people around him do as well. I think he is no longer a lonely, sad and bitter man by the end and he now knows he can be happy and generous at the same time. A Christmas Carol is full of social setting and cultural context. In chapter 1 Marley says I wear the chain I forged in life I made it link by link and yard by yard. This is a use of religion and marley is saying that every link in the chain is a symbol for every person he has hurt or upset and every thing he has done wrong in his life. In chapter 2 it says cold eye glisten this could mean the way Dickens saw the world. He could of felt cold when he looked at the world because of the way people were treated because they were poor and he didnt find it fare to be treated that way. In chapter 3 the poor woman says rather we all drawn together she was talking about how she would rather drawn with her family then go to the work houses. This is Dickens trying to get the message across to how bad the work houses were and what people would do just to avoid going to one. It is like Dickens mouthpiece it was his message to society. Also in chapter 3 the second spirit says, The names are ignorance and want this is Dickens message to society. He also is saying all the wealthy, selfish and mean people at the time were ignorant and they want every thing. In chapter 4 Mr Dilber says its a judgement on him. She is talking about scrooge. This shows that people were very judgemental at the time that the novel was written and people cared a lot about what people thought of them and said about them. This quote also tries into the key themes religion and morality. In chapter 5 scrooge says god forgive for the time I have wasted this is religious. Dickens is saying that god will forgive the rich for being mean and selfish if they change their ways because in the end scrooge was forgiven so they will be to if they change (in a good way). In A Christmas Carol Scrooge makes a moral journey from changing from a horrible, cheap and selfish person into a kind, generous and loved person. Most signs of change happened in chapter 2 and 4. By showing scrooges journey in a way that showed people how happy and generous you can be at once and by showing what the consequences there are if you are greedy and selfish. These made people read Dickens other books and listen to the message he was trying to get across. Dickens tried to change the way in which society worked by writing this book and others. Because Dickens made rich people sound bad he was hated by them and respected by the poor because he was trying to help and defend them.

Future Career Essay Example for Free

Future Career Essay When i think about a future career for myself, i see myself doing it for a very long time. In my imagination i picture myself as a millitary special forces officer. I have always wanted to go into the military since i was a little boy. The first time i ever heard about the green berets or the navy seals i knew that was what i wanted to do. I was told that being in the special forces was a very hard, but honorable career. You have to be very tough physically and mentally. My favorite thing about the special forces teams were that they are allowed to access the worlds latest technology and would go on top secret missions and save tons of people and no one would even know that the event had happened. The military today is a lot different than it was when I was a little kid. Karl von Clausewitz defined war as an act of violence intended to compel our opponent to fulfill our will In order to attain this object fully, the enemy must be disarmed, and disarmament becomes therefore the immediate object of hostility. In the future, we will have the prospective to make war without the use of violence and fulfill the second half of von Clausewitzs definition with software alone. Cyber describes systems that use mechanical or electronic systems to swap human control. Cyber warfare can be executed without violence and therefore the reliance on software intensive systems-cyber systems can make nations exposed to warfare without violence. With the escalating use of computers in military and government, there has been a growing awareness of both a new susceptibility in national infrastructure and a new method of attacking ones enemies. Cyber Warfare could mean winning wars without firing shots, the shutting down of entire national infrastructures at the push of a button, and the complete exploitation or destruction of an enemys communication networks. It could mean threats from across the world by states with no ability to launch a conventional attack just by using cheap laptops. In conclusion nations and their critical infrastructures are becoming increasingly dependent on computer networks for their operation. Also as armies around the world are transforming fr om a platform centric to a network centric force there is increasing reliance on networking technology. With all the advantages of such connectivity come unprecedented challenges to network security. Today we have unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as drones, is an aircraft without a human pilot aboard. Its flight is controlled either autonomously by onboard computers or by the  remote control of a pilot on the ground or in another vehicle. It allows us to keep soldiers lives safe it were to go down. Putting drones together with the futures technology create a new idea of a drone. In the future computers will become more intelligent and will be able to decide answers in situations. Putting a computer like that into a drone will create a weapon of mass destruction. The drone will be able to make lethal decisions without the command of a human. Within the next ten years our drones will become a lot more technologically advanced. Soon the drones will be able to choose and make lethal decisions by itself without the command or control of a human. The military has access to the Military Imaging and Surveillance Technology. The Military Imaging and Surveillance Technology (MIST) program can develop a fundamentally new optical capability that can provide high-resolution 3-D images to locate and identify a target at much longer ranges than is possible with existing surveillance systems. Within the next decade our surveillance will be so technologically advanced that the military will be able to look up anyone in the world and pinpoint their exact location and view what kind of activities they are participating in. Joining the military will be tough trying to keep up with todays expectations in intelligence and technology. But getting to be able to live my dream and do what I have always wanted to do with allow me to strive to accomplish whatever means necessary.

Development of Sustainable LED Lighting for Offices

Development of Sustainable LED Lighting for Offices CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1: Study Background Climate change is rapidly increasing in our environment due to an increase in gases such as carbon dioxide and methane produced by humans and animals in the Earths atmosphere. As humans we have a moral responsibility to control and save the environment. The built environment is one of the major impacts towards greenhouse gas emissions. Designers are now pressured to design sustainable buildings that have less impact on emissions that damage the environment. The term sustainability means to save natural resources for future generations. Many buildings indirectly use resources such as fossil fuels which are converted into energy. Lighting systems in buildings consume some of this energy. Lighting accounts for around 15% of the energy bill in most homes, and around 25% in commercial buildings. It is supplied by electrical power plants using fossil fuels, and is responsible for a significant percentage of carbon dioxide emissions (Marshall 2009) To help combat how we as consumers use electric lighting an alternative can be achieved via sustainable lighting. Sustainable lighting can be defined as, Lighting that meets the qualitative needs of the visual environment with the least impact on the physical environment. (Service Lamp Corp. 2001) Light is an electromagnetic radiation, which means it is partially electric, magnetic and radiates.   Light starts off from atoms (electrons that orbit the nucleus). When energy is absorbed by an atom the electrons shift up to a bigger orbit. When the atom loses the energy the electrons shift back down to the original orbit, while the electrons shift back down they emit light in the form of electromagnetic radiation. (Sarlina 2009) This document will review material on lighting systems in the office environment. The document will start with a brief history of the light bulb and then go on to how humans interpret light. The document will discuss how LED technology would be utilised more in offices and discuss the importance of migrating to LED lighting systems in offices for a more sustainable environment. The thesis will include three known case studies on LED lighting installed in offices to gather and compare data in order to evaluate how LED lighting would suffice in real life environments. 1.2: Brief History The history of modern lighting starts off with the invention of the arc light in 1810 by Humphrey Davy. This worked by connecting a battery to a strip of charcoal using two wires. The strip of charcoal was charge with electricity and glowed. (Jacks 2003) In 1820 Warren De La Rue used a piece of platinum placed inside a tube.   A current was passed through the tube and the platinum lit well but the bulb did not go into production because platinum was very expensive. (Jacks 2003) A chemist and physicist Joseph Wilson Swan produced a workable electric light in 1860 which he patented as an incandescent light bulb with a filament made from carbonised paper within a partial vacuum. J. W. Swan improved on the invention in 1875 he changed the filament to a compressed and carbonised fibrous cotton thread filament. (Jacks 2003) An inventor called Thomas Alva Edison bought Josephs Swans patent from a company who owned the patent.   Thomas Edison worked on the light bulb to increase the life span. In 1880 Thomas Edison invented his Bamboo fibre filament lamp which lasted for 1200-1500 hours. (Jacks 2003) In 1903 Willis Whitnew invented the tungsten filament lamp (commonly used today). The tungsten lamp had a carbon filament with a metal-coating. This stopped the problem with the bulb turning dark as Thomas Edisons bulb did. (Jacks 2003) Technology today has advanced to new methods of lighting. Light emitting diode (LED) technology is now at the centre point of attention as LED lighting has many advantages with being very energy efficient, long lasting and produces less heat compared to standard incandescent or halogen bulbs. 1.3: Dissertation Structure The dissertation is divided into a sequel of five chapters. The first chapter focuses on climate change and the need to for a more sustainable built environment, a brief history into the light bulb, aims and objectives of this dissertation and the logic behind the dissertation. Chapter two is a detailed literature review which focuses on the effects of lighting on building occupants followed by government legislation, then comparing different types of lighting and leading onto research on LED technology. The information gathered is sourced from websites, government documents, books and scientific journals. Chapter three follows on from the literature review. This chapter focuses on the structure for the dissertation; firstly explaining the reason for using a literature review and then drawing on three major case studies have been chosen and all cases deal with LED lighting systems within office spaces. From the case studies the author has analysed and interpreted information.   The primary data gathered will be in the form of a qualitative questionnaire sent to lighting experts (via email) who have been involved with the case studies. The Answers have been analysed and compared to get a wide knowledge from accredited professional opinions. The fourth chapter researches into the three chosen case studies, all case studies are analysed and compared to give an overview of how effective having an LED lighting system is in an office environment. The fifth chapter discusses the results gathered from the findings. This would give an overview to the dissertation and show the key findings into answering the key questions. The final chapter will draw up conclusions as to the impact of LED lighting in office environments. The chapter addresses the original research question in the context of the findings and provides final conclusions on LED lighting and making use appropriate references where necessary. 1.4: Aim and Objectives The author has chosen sustainable LED lighting as the subject area in this dissertation. The question the author would like to propose will be: Why arent there enough office buildings using LED lighting systems? Also what effects do LED lighting have on users working in an office environment; would LEDs be beneficial for health and comfort on a psychological basis? To address the question the author will explore this main aim: The aim of this study is to research into the sustainability of LED lighting systems and how lighting can affect building users within an office environment. The author will aim analyse case studies on LED lighting systems in offices. What are the advantages and disadvantages? How would an LED lighting system be best suited for the office environment in terms of efficiency, comfort, reliability and short long term costs? The author will interview people from case studies drawn to gather primary qualitative information to reach a final conclusion. The actions the author will take to help answer the research question are listed below: Literature review, take into account of the building regulations, effects of artificial lighting on building occupants, types of artificial lighting and researching into books, case studies, reports, journals and websites related to LED lighting and other sustainable lighting systems. Research case studies on LED lighting systems that have been installed in offices. This would give the author an insight on how LED lighting systems have been successful in a real life environment. Interview researchers from case studies. Ask questions about how LEDs are designed to fit in a working office environment. Any issues that have occurred within the buildings. 1.5: Hypothesis In the United Kingdom there are very few offices if any that use an LED lighting systems to light up an office space. This could be due to lack of awareness, economic climate, social environment and lack of technology available to solve prob lematic conditions. 1.6: Key questions 1. How does light effect building users in terms of health? 2. How would LED lighting benefit offices and the environment? 3. Why isnt there many offices using LED lighting systems? 4. What is the current market like for LED lighting? Would there be a future for more LED lighting in offices? CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1: Introduction This chapter researches into the effects of lighting on buildings occupants, legislation, different types of lighting and LED technology in detail. The aim for this literature review is to obtain information on how light is transcribed in the circadian system and the effects of light on human health. Legislation is a key issue for lighting. it regulate on the amount of light required for the appropriate tasks usually attained in different buildings, by learning legislation it would give the author an understanding into what requirements an office would need for good lighting. All information collated are from secondary and tertiary sources; for this literature review the information is found in books, journals, web pages, and government documents. 2.2: Effects of lighting on building occupants Lighting affects all building occupants on the way they perform tasks. There are different levels of lighting in different environment; the colour of light used in offices would tend to have a blue-white colour to promote concentration and light used in public areas would be a warmer yellow colour so building occupants would feel more relaxed in this type of environment. Too much light can cause health problems such as increased stress levels, headaches and higher blood pressure to the building occupant. (H.E.S.E, 2009) (Boyce, 2003 pp. 160) stated that Most apparently visual tasks have three components; visual, cognitive, and motor. Every task is unique in its balance between these components and hence in the effect lighting conditions have on task performance. (Boyce, 2003 pp. 160) also stated that Lighting conditions can affect task performance throught three systems, the visual system, the circadian system, and the perceptual system. the impact   of lighting conditions on the visual system and hence on visual performance is determined by the size, luminance contrast, and colour difference of the task and the amount, spectrum, distrbution of the lighting. The point that   (Boyce, 2003) makes is that light sent to the visual system affects the performance of the information relayed in the brain.   (Cuttle, 2008 pp. 5-6) stated The optical system of the human eye focuses an inverted image onto the retina, shown in Figure 1. This image is constantly changing with movements of the head and the scanning movements of the eyes. It is often said that the eye is like a camera, but the only similarity is that it forms a focused image in which, for every pixel, there is a corresponding element in the luminous environment. The distribution of luminance and colour that comprises the retinal image is modified by light losses that occur in the optical media of the eye, and these losses are not constant as they increase significantly with age. (Cuttle, 2008) Both books express points about how light is interpreted in the human brain differently but they both correlate how light can affect a building occupant. They both state how light is interpreted in the visual system. A research journal on Light Much More Than Vision written by Mark. S. Rea (Ph.D.) Discuses how lighting can affect the circadian system in building occupants. The journal questions if offices, school and homes are providing good lighting practises. The journal begins with an abstract on the impact of light on the circadian system The amount of light, its spectral composition, spatial distribution, timing and duration needed for vision is so different from that needed for circadian functioning, that generalizations about good lighting will have to be assessed by two very different sets of criteria in the future. (Mark. S. Rea, 2007) The journal continues on how light is interpreted in the human circadian system Light is presently and formally defined as optical radiation entering the eye that provides visual sensation. An international system of photometry has been developed and institutionalized to quantify, measure and communicate the properties of light as it affects the human vision. (Mark. S. Rea, 2007) This statement explains how light is communicated in human vision.   Practical sources of light allow humans to read material, move around spaces, drive cars, create social interaction between other users and allow user to do other activities. Under spatial distribution the journal states Through optical refraction by the cornea and lens in the eye and by neural-optical enhancements by in the retina, the spatial distribution of objects and textures in the environment can be processed by the visual system. Arguably accurate rendering of the spatial distribution of light in our environment by our retina is essential to our survival because   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   patterns of light and dark provide information needed by the visual system (Mark. S. Rea, 2007) The journal concludes with So, Are we providing healthy light in our offices, schools and homes? Probably the answer is No, we are not. Certainly we are not providing or specifiying the ideal lighting technologies and applications for the circadian regluation (Mark. S. Rea, 2007). This would bring on the question as to wether LED lighting would provide the answer to good lighting. LED has been evolving for years, they have been specifically modified to provide comfortable lighting levels for which a user could carry out certain visual functions. 2.3: Legislation The Kyoto agreement is a protocol made by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change. This main aim of the protocol is to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions. There are four greenhouse gases that the protocol focuses on (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, sulphur hexafluoride). The United Kingdom Government is legally tied to the Kyoto agreement and has set out targets to meet emission rates. A document on The Kyoto Protocol by British-Energy states The UKs commitment under the protocol is for a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of 12.5% from 1990 levels by 2008-2012. This implies an 8% reduction in CO2 emissions over this time period. The UK government also has an aspirational target for itself of a 20% reduction of CO2 emissions by 2010, demonstrating the importance of this issue for the current government.(British Energy, 2009) Offices contribute towards the CO2 emissions given off around the planet. A lot of the energy used in offices is mainly caused by office lighting. The new advancements in LED lighting could reduce the amount of energy used because LED lighting is the most sustainable type of artificial lighting. This could help aid the efforts of the Kyoto Protocol and help meets emission targets. Approved Documents Part L of the building regulations is split up into four documents. Part L1A and L1B focuses on conservation of fuel and power in domestic buildings, part L2A and L2B focuses on conservation of fuel and power in non domestic buildings. As of 6th April 2006 the revised Building Regulations Part L Conservation of Fuel and Power came into effect. The updated regulations would improve energy standards by 40 percent from that of the 2002 Building Regulations (ODPM, 2006). There are four approved documents published by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM, 2006): Approved Document L1A: Conservation of fuel and power (New dwellings) (2006 edition) Approved Document L1B: Conservation of fuel and power (Existing dwellings) (2006 edition) Approved Document L2A: Conservation of fuel and power (New buildings other than dwellings) (2006 edition) Approved Document L2B: Conservation of fuel and power (Existing buildings other than dwellings) (2006 edition) L1 Domestic buildings Conservation of fuel and power in dwellings. Limiting heat loss through fabric of dwelling from hot water pipes used for space heating. Limiting heat loss through hot water vessels and service pipes. Use control systems on space heating and hot water systems so that energy can be used efficiently. Use control systems on lighting systems so that energy can be used efficiently. L2 Buildings other than dwellings Conservation of fuel and power in non domestic buildings. Limiting heat loss through fabric of dwelling from hot water pipes used for space heating. Limiting heat loss through hot water vessels and service pipes. Use control systems on space heating and hot water systems so that energy can be used efficiently. Providing lighting systems with sufficient controls so that energy can be used efficiently. Limiting exposure to solar heat gains. Use control systems on air conditioning and mechanical ventilation systems so that energy can be used efficiently. Commissioning the building engineering services so that they make efficient use of energy and recording their performance. Approved Document L2A: Conservation of fuel and power highlights what is required for lighting efficiency in offices, industrial and storage areas in all building types. The document states For the purposes of this Approved Document, office areas include those spaces that involve predominantly desk-based tasks, including classrooms, seminar rooms and conference rooms, including those in schools. Reasonable provision would be to provide lighting with an average initial efficiency of not less than 45 luminaire-lumens/circuit-Watt as averaged over the whole area of these types of space in the building. (ODPM, 2006 pp. 19) LED lighting has the potential to excel past the average guide for initial efficiency of 45 lumens per watt. A breakthrough from the lighting company CREE states LED efficacy test results that set a new benchmark for the LED industry. Cree reported results of 131 lumens per watt white LED efficacy, confirmed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology in Gaithersburg, Maryland. Tests were performed using prototype white LEDs with Cree EZBrightâ„ ¢ LED chips. (CREE Inc, 2009) The CIBSE Lighting Guide 7: Office Lighting gives a guidance of how to layout lighting systems within an office to give the maximum efficiency of lighting and how much light is required for different types of office spaces. The guide states There are many ways to light an office space: with direct light down from above, from indirect light bounced from the ceiling, or from a combination of both. Many factors will dictate or influence the choice of which technique to use.   (Ruffles, 2005 pp. 7) There are many different building types and each office would need a lighting system that is individually specified. There are different types of lighting systems that give off different light intensities. The lighting guide states that a typical office space would need 500 lux (illuminance) for building users to take on paper-based or mixed tasks comfortably and 300 lux for any screen-based work. (Ruffles, 2005) Figure 2 shows the required amounts of light need for building user to work within different types of offices spaces, taken from the office lighting guide. The figures suggest that each typical office space would need 300 lux for screen based tasks, normal meetings and reception administrative tasks and 500 lux for more intense tasks such as paper-based, reading documents and writing. In a more deep-plan area the office space is required to have 500-750 lux throughout to perform multiple tasks comfortably. This is due to the fact that deep-plan areas are more towards the middle of office spaces or more than six meters away from windows; they would require a more constant flow of artificial light. This is where LED lighting may be at best because of the amount of electricity LED lighting systems take are very minimal and could deliver the required amount of light depending and the type of fixture. In normal deep-plan areas artificial lighting systems are on for longer periods because natural lighting coming in from windows would not penetrate throughout the office spaces. The corporation Philips suggests that a higher powered LED light would deliver up to 220 lumens. This type of LED would typically consume four watts. A typical deep-plan office space would require three high powered LED lights to deliver a comfortable amount of light for a user to perform various tasks, which would still consume less electricity compared to other office lighting systems. 2.4: Types of lighting There are many types of lamps that are currently used in different environments. These lamps include the incandescent lamp, compact fluorescent lamp, fluorescent lamp, halogen lamp, metal halide lamp and light emitting diodes. Incandescent lamps An incandescent lamp is a glass (See figure 3) bulb containing a thin filament. A current is passed through the filament, which heats up the filament until light is produced. (Philips, 2000 pp.49-50) stated The earliest filament lamps as developed by Swan in the United Kingdom and Edison in the United States had a short life of only 150 hours and a low efficiency of 2.5 lumens per watt, but they were thought of as a magic light source to replace gaslight. Filament lamps were clean, had greater flexibility, better colour and, with the development of available sources of power, better long-term economics. Now, a century later, the light bulb is still the preferred lamp for domestic use due to its cheap cost. Phillips (2000) continues to state that The life of a filament lamp depends upon its light output, with a greater output giving a shorter life. A life of 1000 hours with a light output of 12/14 lumens per watt was established as being a reasonable compromise and one which has stood the test of time. (Bean, 2007 pp. 139) explains that a compact fluorescent lamp is the introduction of smaller diameter tubes using high efficiency triphosphors bought with it the posibility of folding the tubes to produce compact single ended lamps. A 12W compact fluorescent lamp gives the same output as a 60W tungsten GLS lamp. Fluorescent Lamps (Fielder, 2005 pp. 28) states that Fluorescent lamps are built using a tubular glass envelope coated on the inside with a mix of phosphors. Inert Gas and a small amount of mercury is introduced into the tube to provide the atoms for photoluminescence. the tube is slightly pressurized, and the ends of the tube are capped with electrodes, which contain a cathode to generate and arc. Fluorescent lamps are 8 times more efficient than incandescent lamps and have a long life span, but fluorescent lamps contain mercury shown in figure 5. Mercury in lamps is harmful for the environment if not disposed of appropriately. Halogen Lamps The Interior Lighting for Designers book articulates that The tungsten-halogen   (or halogen)   lamp is an incandescent lamp with a selected gas of the halogen family sealed into it. As the lamp burns, the halogen gas combines with tungsten molecules that sputter off the filament and deposits the tungsten back on the filament   (Gordon, 2003 pp. 73). Figure 6 below shows an example of what a typical halogen lamp looks like. Metal Halide Lamps Metal halide lamps produce white light of a good colour quality and are available in many sizes, from compact lamps that can be used in track lighting and table lamps to huge lamps for lighting stadiums. Standard metal halide lamps tend to have a colour temperature of 3700 to 4100K and appear cool and slightly greenish. Their CRI is 65 to 70. Standard metal halide lamps typically are used where colour is not critical, such as sports arenas, parking lots, landscape lighting, and building floodlighting. (Benya, 2004 pp. 9-10) Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) An LED is a semiconductor device that emits light when a voltage is surged through the semiconductor.   LED solid-state lighting is becoming more in use because of the energy saving benefits and long term costs. The main types of light bulbs used in offices are fluorescent lamps, incandescent tungsten filament (halogen lamps) and metal halide lamps. Fluorescent lamps are the main types of light sources used in offing lighting; the table states that the fluorescent tubes has a lamp efficiency of 32-86 Lm/W (Lumens per watt) this has a higher efficiency compared to incandescent tungsten filament lamp which have an efficiency of 7-14 Lm/W. Also fluorescent lamps can last more than ten times longer than incandescent tungsten filament lamps, but the tungsten filament lamps has a colour rendering index of 99 which means that the light intensity is much higher and would provide light that is closer to natural daylight compared to fluorescent lamps. Tungsten lamps are mainly used for executive offices to give an office a more professional looking environment. Metal halide lamps are used for desk lamp for more detailed important task where more light may be required for analytical reading and writing /complex drawing tasks. 2.5: LED technology LED technology is a fast growing lamp replacement solution in the lighting industry. LEDs contain semiconductors which are atoms of arsenic, phosphorus, germanium or other elements found in the periodic table. When electricity passes through the semiconductor visible light is emitted. Placing a number of LEDS side by side increases the increases the strength of the brightness. LED lights are also dimmable so the user could control the light intensity in a given area. The advantages of using LEDS are that they have a 50,000 to 100,000 hour life span, they consume very little electricity, they instantly light up, LED lights do not emit UV rays, they are durable to   vibrations they do not contain any mercury and LED emits light from any part of the light spectrum. The disadvantages of using LED lighting are that light is distributed directly instead of evenly compared to incandescent and fluorescent bulbs; it is very expensive to buy LED lights, they could cause light pollution in an environment because LEDs produce a lot of white light and LEDs are sensitive to heat. LED lighting is still currently being researched today to find out better methods to utilise the light from LEDs. An article from The Independent newspaper states The Indian government hopes to remedy this situation, which affects 112,000 rural villages across the country, over the next decade. The solution is a combination of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and solar power. The former are more efficient than light bulbs the power required to light one conventional 100W bulb can now light an entire village and the latter allows electricity to be stored in batteries and provides lighting where there is no grid supply. Both LEDs and solar panels can also take the rough and tumble of village life: having few moving parts, they are very durable. (Independent, 2006) It is evident to see from this statement that the progress of utilising light from LEDs is positive; however this is not something that can be generalised to a greater population at this current time due to economics. A journal published from the Philips Research Centre shows an experiment on LED light sources and modelling for practical control systems for LEDs. (Subramanian Muthu, 2002) states The recent improvements in high-power light emitting diodes (LED) technology with 100+ lumens per LED chip and efficacy exceeding that of incandescent lamps brings the solid-state lighting close to a reality. An LED light source made of Red, Green and Blue (RGB) LEDs can provide a compact light source with unique features such as instant colour variability. In this paper, we highlight the issues that introduce the variability in the colour point and present feedback control schemes to overcome these problems. (Subramanian Muthu, 2002) The journal concluded with: RGB-LEDs have enormous potential in lighting applications. The major issue to be resolved is control and maintenance of the white point. This issue arises from the variation in LED wavelength and lumen output with temperature, drive current and time. Further complications arise due to the wide spread in the performance parameters of nominally identical LEDs. In this paper we have presented solutions to these issues using electronic feedback control of the light output of the LEDs. (Subramanian Muthu, 2002) A journal on Fundamental Analysis for Visible-Light Communication System Using LED Lights states LED is more advantageous than the existing incandescent in terms of life expectancy, high tolerance to humidity, low power consumption, and minimal heat generation lighting Our group has proposed and optical wireless communication system that employs white LEDs for indoors wireless networks (8)-(11). (Nakagawa, 2004) The journal concludes In visible-light communication system, the LED lights are distributed within a room and the irradiance of light is wide for function of lighting equipment. Therefore, the intersymbol interference depended on the data rate and the FOW of receiver.   (Nakagawa, 2004) A technical report on Energy Savings Estimates of Light Emitting Diodes in Niche Lighting Applications from the U.S. Department of energy focuses on the energy performance of LED lighting systems within different sectors such as, residential lighting, traffic lighting, retail lighting and office under shelf lighting. the document states that A type of task lighting, LED office undershelf lighting systems have been introduced on the market as replacements for T12 and T8 fluorescent products used in the commercial offices. LED office undershelf lights have the potential to save 1.37 TWh/yr if the entire market shifted to 2007 LED technology, equal to 14.8 TBtu/yr of primary energy consumption. This amounts to about 20% of the annual consumption of one large (1000 MW) electric power plant or the annual electricity consumption of one hundred thousand U.S. households.(U.S. Department of Energy, 2008 pp. 50) The report also states that fluorescent lamps, T8s, and T12s are the types of lamps that are commonly used in an office environment. These fluorescent lighting systems have a fixture efficiency of less than 40%.   This follows on to the average number of hours artificial lights operate for. Office undershelf lighting systems operate for an average of 2000 hours per year, amounting to about 5.5 hours per day or 8 hours per work day. (U.S. Department of Energy, 2008 pp. 51) This would bring on maintenance costs for the building owner due to bulb replacements. The life span of LED lighting systems is far greater than fluorescent lamps, which in turn would reduce regular maintenance. The annual energy comsuption for 53 million office undershelf lighting systems consume 3.43 TWh/yr of electricity in the U.S. At the moment LED lighting systems are still new to the market and have not penetrated the market enough to calculate the actual energy savings; however LED lighting systems have the potential to save 1.37 TWh/yr of electricity if LED lights completely replaced fluorescent lighting systems. (U.S. Department of Energy, 2008 pp. 52) (DiLouie, 2006) Points that LEDs are solid state devices that produce light by passing a current through semiconductor chips which are housed in a reflector, which is Development of Sustainable LED Lighting for Offices Development of Sustainable LED Lighting for Offices CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1: Study Background Climate change is rapidly increasing in our environment due to an increase in gases such as carbon dioxide and methane produced by humans and animals in the Earths atmosphere. As humans we have a moral responsibility to control and save the environment. The built environment is one of the major impacts towards greenhouse gas emissions. Designers are now pressured to design sustainable buildings that have less impact on emissions that damage the environment. The term sustainability means to save natural resources for future generations. Many buildings indirectly use resources such as fossil fuels which are converted into energy. Lighting systems in buildings consume some of this energy. Lighting accounts for around 15% of the energy bill in most homes, and around 25% in commercial buildings. It is supplied by electrical power plants using fossil fuels, and is responsible for a significant percentage of carbon dioxide emissions (Marshall 2009) To help combat how we as consumers use electric lighting an alternative can be achieved via sustainable lighting. Sustainable lighting can be defined as, Lighting that meets the qualitative needs of the visual environment with the least impact on the physical environment. (Service Lamp Corp. 2001) Light is an electromagnetic radiation, which means it is partially electric, magnetic and radiates.   Light starts off from atoms (electrons that orbit the nucleus). When energy is absorbed by an atom the electrons shift up to a bigger orbit. When the atom loses the energy the electrons shift back down to the original orbit, while the electrons shift back down they emit light in the form of electromagnetic radiation. (Sarlina 2009) This document will review material on lighting systems in the office environment. The document will start with a brief history of the light bulb and then go on to how humans interpret light. The document will discuss how LED technology would be utilised more in offices and discuss the importance of migrating to LED lighting systems in offices for a more sustainable environment. The thesis will include three known case studies on LED lighting installed in offices to gather and compare data in order to evaluate how LED lighting would suffice in real life environments. 1.2: Brief History The history of modern lighting starts off with the invention of the arc light in 1810 by Humphrey Davy. This worked by connecting a battery to a strip of charcoal using two wires. The strip of charcoal was charge with electricity and glowed. (Jacks 2003) In 1820 Warren De La Rue used a piece of platinum placed inside a tube.   A current was passed through the tube and the platinum lit well but the bulb did not go into production because platinum was very expensive. (Jacks 2003) A chemist and physicist Joseph Wilson Swan produced a workable electric light in 1860 which he patented as an incandescent light bulb with a filament made from carbonised paper within a partial vacuum. J. W. Swan improved on the invention in 1875 he changed the filament to a compressed and carbonised fibrous cotton thread filament. (Jacks 2003) An inventor called Thomas Alva Edison bought Josephs Swans patent from a company who owned the patent.   Thomas Edison worked on the light bulb to increase the life span. In 1880 Thomas Edison invented his Bamboo fibre filament lamp which lasted for 1200-1500 hours. (Jacks 2003) In 1903 Willis Whitnew invented the tungsten filament lamp (commonly used today). The tungsten lamp had a carbon filament with a metal-coating. This stopped the problem with the bulb turning dark as Thomas Edisons bulb did. (Jacks 2003) Technology today has advanced to new methods of lighting. Light emitting diode (LED) technology is now at the centre point of attention as LED lighting has many advantages with being very energy efficient, long lasting and produces less heat compared to standard incandescent or halogen bulbs. 1.3: Dissertation Structure The dissertation is divided into a sequel of five chapters. The first chapter focuses on climate change and the need to for a more sustainable built environment, a brief history into the light bulb, aims and objectives of this dissertation and the logic behind the dissertation. Chapter two is a detailed literature review which focuses on the effects of lighting on building occupants followed by government legislation, then comparing different types of lighting and leading onto research on LED technology. The information gathered is sourced from websites, government documents, books and scientific journals. Chapter three follows on from the literature review. This chapter focuses on the structure for the dissertation; firstly explaining the reason for using a literature review and then drawing on three major case studies have been chosen and all cases deal with LED lighting systems within office spaces. From the case studies the author has analysed and interpreted information.   The primary data gathered will be in the form of a qualitative questionnaire sent to lighting experts (via email) who have been involved with the case studies. The Answers have been analysed and compared to get a wide knowledge from accredited professional opinions. The fourth chapter researches into the three chosen case studies, all case studies are analysed and compared to give an overview of how effective having an LED lighting system is in an office environment. The fifth chapter discusses the results gathered from the findings. This would give an overview to the dissertation and show the key findings into answering the key questions. The final chapter will draw up conclusions as to the impact of LED lighting in office environments. The chapter addresses the original research question in the context of the findings and provides final conclusions on LED lighting and making use appropriate references where necessary. 1.4: Aim and Objectives The author has chosen sustainable LED lighting as the subject area in this dissertation. The question the author would like to propose will be: Why arent there enough office buildings using LED lighting systems? Also what effects do LED lighting have on users working in an office environment; would LEDs be beneficial for health and comfort on a psychological basis? To address the question the author will explore this main aim: The aim of this study is to research into the sustainability of LED lighting systems and how lighting can affect building users within an office environment. The author will aim analyse case studies on LED lighting systems in offices. What are the advantages and disadvantages? How would an LED lighting system be best suited for the office environment in terms of efficiency, comfort, reliability and short long term costs? The author will interview people from case studies drawn to gather primary qualitative information to reach a final conclusion. The actions the author will take to help answer the research question are listed below: Literature review, take into account of the building regulations, effects of artificial lighting on building occupants, types of artificial lighting and researching into books, case studies, reports, journals and websites related to LED lighting and other sustainable lighting systems. Research case studies on LED lighting systems that have been installed in offices. This would give the author an insight on how LED lighting systems have been successful in a real life environment. Interview researchers from case studies. Ask questions about how LEDs are designed to fit in a working office environment. Any issues that have occurred within the buildings. 1.5: Hypothesis In the United Kingdom there are very few offices if any that use an LED lighting systems to light up an office space. This could be due to lack of awareness, economic climate, social environment and lack of technology available to solve prob lematic conditions. 1.6: Key questions 1. How does light effect building users in terms of health? 2. How would LED lighting benefit offices and the environment? 3. Why isnt there many offices using LED lighting systems? 4. What is the current market like for LED lighting? Would there be a future for more LED lighting in offices? CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1: Introduction This chapter researches into the effects of lighting on buildings occupants, legislation, different types of lighting and LED technology in detail. The aim for this literature review is to obtain information on how light is transcribed in the circadian system and the effects of light on human health. Legislation is a key issue for lighting. it regulate on the amount of light required for the appropriate tasks usually attained in different buildings, by learning legislation it would give the author an understanding into what requirements an office would need for good lighting. All information collated are from secondary and tertiary sources; for this literature review the information is found in books, journals, web pages, and government documents. 2.2: Effects of lighting on building occupants Lighting affects all building occupants on the way they perform tasks. There are different levels of lighting in different environment; the colour of light used in offices would tend to have a blue-white colour to promote concentration and light used in public areas would be a warmer yellow colour so building occupants would feel more relaxed in this type of environment. Too much light can cause health problems such as increased stress levels, headaches and higher blood pressure to the building occupant. (H.E.S.E, 2009) (Boyce, 2003 pp. 160) stated that Most apparently visual tasks have three components; visual, cognitive, and motor. Every task is unique in its balance between these components and hence in the effect lighting conditions have on task performance. (Boyce, 2003 pp. 160) also stated that Lighting conditions can affect task performance throught three systems, the visual system, the circadian system, and the perceptual system. the impact   of lighting conditions on the visual system and hence on visual performance is determined by the size, luminance contrast, and colour difference of the task and the amount, spectrum, distrbution of the lighting. The point that   (Boyce, 2003) makes is that light sent to the visual system affects the performance of the information relayed in the brain.   (Cuttle, 2008 pp. 5-6) stated The optical system of the human eye focuses an inverted image onto the retina, shown in Figure 1. This image is constantly changing with movements of the head and the scanning movements of the eyes. It is often said that the eye is like a camera, but the only similarity is that it forms a focused image in which, for every pixel, there is a corresponding element in the luminous environment. The distribution of luminance and colour that comprises the retinal image is modified by light losses that occur in the optical media of the eye, and these losses are not constant as they increase significantly with age. (Cuttle, 2008) Both books express points about how light is interpreted in the human brain differently but they both correlate how light can affect a building occupant. They both state how light is interpreted in the visual system. A research journal on Light Much More Than Vision written by Mark. S. Rea (Ph.D.) Discuses how lighting can affect the circadian system in building occupants. The journal questions if offices, school and homes are providing good lighting practises. The journal begins with an abstract on the impact of light on the circadian system The amount of light, its spectral composition, spatial distribution, timing and duration needed for vision is so different from that needed for circadian functioning, that generalizations about good lighting will have to be assessed by two very different sets of criteria in the future. (Mark. S. Rea, 2007) The journal continues on how light is interpreted in the human circadian system Light is presently and formally defined as optical radiation entering the eye that provides visual sensation. An international system of photometry has been developed and institutionalized to quantify, measure and communicate the properties of light as it affects the human vision. (Mark. S. Rea, 2007) This statement explains how light is communicated in human vision.   Practical sources of light allow humans to read material, move around spaces, drive cars, create social interaction between other users and allow user to do other activities. Under spatial distribution the journal states Through optical refraction by the cornea and lens in the eye and by neural-optical enhancements by in the retina, the spatial distribution of objects and textures in the environment can be processed by the visual system. Arguably accurate rendering of the spatial distribution of light in our environment by our retina is essential to our survival because   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   patterns of light and dark provide information needed by the visual system (Mark. S. Rea, 2007) The journal concludes with So, Are we providing healthy light in our offices, schools and homes? Probably the answer is No, we are not. Certainly we are not providing or specifiying the ideal lighting technologies and applications for the circadian regluation (Mark. S. Rea, 2007). This would bring on the question as to wether LED lighting would provide the answer to good lighting. LED has been evolving for years, they have been specifically modified to provide comfortable lighting levels for which a user could carry out certain visual functions. 2.3: Legislation The Kyoto agreement is a protocol made by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change. This main aim of the protocol is to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions. There are four greenhouse gases that the protocol focuses on (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, sulphur hexafluoride). The United Kingdom Government is legally tied to the Kyoto agreement and has set out targets to meet emission rates. A document on The Kyoto Protocol by British-Energy states The UKs commitment under the protocol is for a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of 12.5% from 1990 levels by 2008-2012. This implies an 8% reduction in CO2 emissions over this time period. The UK government also has an aspirational target for itself of a 20% reduction of CO2 emissions by 2010, demonstrating the importance of this issue for the current government.(British Energy, 2009) Offices contribute towards the CO2 emissions given off around the planet. A lot of the energy used in offices is mainly caused by office lighting. The new advancements in LED lighting could reduce the amount of energy used because LED lighting is the most sustainable type of artificial lighting. This could help aid the efforts of the Kyoto Protocol and help meets emission targets. Approved Documents Part L of the building regulations is split up into four documents. Part L1A and L1B focuses on conservation of fuel and power in domestic buildings, part L2A and L2B focuses on conservation of fuel and power in non domestic buildings. As of 6th April 2006 the revised Building Regulations Part L Conservation of Fuel and Power came into effect. The updated regulations would improve energy standards by 40 percent from that of the 2002 Building Regulations (ODPM, 2006). There are four approved documents published by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM, 2006): Approved Document L1A: Conservation of fuel and power (New dwellings) (2006 edition) Approved Document L1B: Conservation of fuel and power (Existing dwellings) (2006 edition) Approved Document L2A: Conservation of fuel and power (New buildings other than dwellings) (2006 edition) Approved Document L2B: Conservation of fuel and power (Existing buildings other than dwellings) (2006 edition) L1 Domestic buildings Conservation of fuel and power in dwellings. Limiting heat loss through fabric of dwelling from hot water pipes used for space heating. Limiting heat loss through hot water vessels and service pipes. Use control systems on space heating and hot water systems so that energy can be used efficiently. Use control systems on lighting systems so that energy can be used efficiently. L2 Buildings other than dwellings Conservation of fuel and power in non domestic buildings. Limiting heat loss through fabric of dwelling from hot water pipes used for space heating. Limiting heat loss through hot water vessels and service pipes. Use control systems on space heating and hot water systems so that energy can be used efficiently. Providing lighting systems with sufficient controls so that energy can be used efficiently. Limiting exposure to solar heat gains. Use control systems on air conditioning and mechanical ventilation systems so that energy can be used efficiently. Commissioning the building engineering services so that they make efficient use of energy and recording their performance. Approved Document L2A: Conservation of fuel and power highlights what is required for lighting efficiency in offices, industrial and storage areas in all building types. The document states For the purposes of this Approved Document, office areas include those spaces that involve predominantly desk-based tasks, including classrooms, seminar rooms and conference rooms, including those in schools. Reasonable provision would be to provide lighting with an average initial efficiency of not less than 45 luminaire-lumens/circuit-Watt as averaged over the whole area of these types of space in the building. (ODPM, 2006 pp. 19) LED lighting has the potential to excel past the average guide for initial efficiency of 45 lumens per watt. A breakthrough from the lighting company CREE states LED efficacy test results that set a new benchmark for the LED industry. Cree reported results of 131 lumens per watt white LED efficacy, confirmed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology in Gaithersburg, Maryland. Tests were performed using prototype white LEDs with Cree EZBrightâ„ ¢ LED chips. (CREE Inc, 2009) The CIBSE Lighting Guide 7: Office Lighting gives a guidance of how to layout lighting systems within an office to give the maximum efficiency of lighting and how much light is required for different types of office spaces. The guide states There are many ways to light an office space: with direct light down from above, from indirect light bounced from the ceiling, or from a combination of both. Many factors will dictate or influence the choice of which technique to use.   (Ruffles, 2005 pp. 7) There are many different building types and each office would need a lighting system that is individually specified. There are different types of lighting systems that give off different light intensities. The lighting guide states that a typical office space would need 500 lux (illuminance) for building users to take on paper-based or mixed tasks comfortably and 300 lux for any screen-based work. (Ruffles, 2005) Figure 2 shows the required amounts of light need for building user to work within different types of offices spaces, taken from the office lighting guide. The figures suggest that each typical office space would need 300 lux for screen based tasks, normal meetings and reception administrative tasks and 500 lux for more intense tasks such as paper-based, reading documents and writing. In a more deep-plan area the office space is required to have 500-750 lux throughout to perform multiple tasks comfortably. This is due to the fact that deep-plan areas are more towards the middle of office spaces or more than six meters away from windows; they would require a more constant flow of artificial light. This is where LED lighting may be at best because of the amount of electricity LED lighting systems take are very minimal and could deliver the required amount of light depending and the type of fixture. In normal deep-plan areas artificial lighting systems are on for longer periods because natural lighting coming in from windows would not penetrate throughout the office spaces. The corporation Philips suggests that a higher powered LED light would deliver up to 220 lumens. This type of LED would typically consume four watts. A typical deep-plan office space would require three high powered LED lights to deliver a comfortable amount of light for a user to perform various tasks, which would still consume less electricity compared to other office lighting systems. 2.4: Types of lighting There are many types of lamps that are currently used in different environments. These lamps include the incandescent lamp, compact fluorescent lamp, fluorescent lamp, halogen lamp, metal halide lamp and light emitting diodes. Incandescent lamps An incandescent lamp is a glass (See figure 3) bulb containing a thin filament. A current is passed through the filament, which heats up the filament until light is produced. (Philips, 2000 pp.49-50) stated The earliest filament lamps as developed by Swan in the United Kingdom and Edison in the United States had a short life of only 150 hours and a low efficiency of 2.5 lumens per watt, but they were thought of as a magic light source to replace gaslight. Filament lamps were clean, had greater flexibility, better colour and, with the development of available sources of power, better long-term economics. Now, a century later, the light bulb is still the preferred lamp for domestic use due to its cheap cost. Phillips (2000) continues to state that The life of a filament lamp depends upon its light output, with a greater output giving a shorter life. A life of 1000 hours with a light output of 12/14 lumens per watt was established as being a reasonable compromise and one which has stood the test of time. (Bean, 2007 pp. 139) explains that a compact fluorescent lamp is the introduction of smaller diameter tubes using high efficiency triphosphors bought with it the posibility of folding the tubes to produce compact single ended lamps. A 12W compact fluorescent lamp gives the same output as a 60W tungsten GLS lamp. Fluorescent Lamps (Fielder, 2005 pp. 28) states that Fluorescent lamps are built using a tubular glass envelope coated on the inside with a mix of phosphors. Inert Gas and a small amount of mercury is introduced into the tube to provide the atoms for photoluminescence. the tube is slightly pressurized, and the ends of the tube are capped with electrodes, which contain a cathode to generate and arc. Fluorescent lamps are 8 times more efficient than incandescent lamps and have a long life span, but fluorescent lamps contain mercury shown in figure 5. Mercury in lamps is harmful for the environment if not disposed of appropriately. Halogen Lamps The Interior Lighting for Designers book articulates that The tungsten-halogen   (or halogen)   lamp is an incandescent lamp with a selected gas of the halogen family sealed into it. As the lamp burns, the halogen gas combines with tungsten molecules that sputter off the filament and deposits the tungsten back on the filament   (Gordon, 2003 pp. 73). Figure 6 below shows an example of what a typical halogen lamp looks like. Metal Halide Lamps Metal halide lamps produce white light of a good colour quality and are available in many sizes, from compact lamps that can be used in track lighting and table lamps to huge lamps for lighting stadiums. Standard metal halide lamps tend to have a colour temperature of 3700 to 4100K and appear cool and slightly greenish. Their CRI is 65 to 70. Standard metal halide lamps typically are used where colour is not critical, such as sports arenas, parking lots, landscape lighting, and building floodlighting. (Benya, 2004 pp. 9-10) Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) An LED is a semiconductor device that emits light when a voltage is surged through the semiconductor.   LED solid-state lighting is becoming more in use because of the energy saving benefits and long term costs. The main types of light bulbs used in offices are fluorescent lamps, incandescent tungsten filament (halogen lamps) and metal halide lamps. Fluorescent lamps are the main types of light sources used in offing lighting; the table states that the fluorescent tubes has a lamp efficiency of 32-86 Lm/W (Lumens per watt) this has a higher efficiency compared to incandescent tungsten filament lamp which have an efficiency of 7-14 Lm/W. Also fluorescent lamps can last more than ten times longer than incandescent tungsten filament lamps, but the tungsten filament lamps has a colour rendering index of 99 which means that the light intensity is much higher and would provide light that is closer to natural daylight compared to fluorescent lamps. Tungsten lamps are mainly used for executive offices to give an office a more professional looking environment. Metal halide lamps are used for desk lamp for more detailed important task where more light may be required for analytical reading and writing /complex drawing tasks. 2.5: LED technology LED technology is a fast growing lamp replacement solution in the lighting industry. LEDs contain semiconductors which are atoms of arsenic, phosphorus, germanium or other elements found in the periodic table. When electricity passes through the semiconductor visible light is emitted. Placing a number of LEDS side by side increases the increases the strength of the brightness. LED lights are also dimmable so the user could control the light intensity in a given area. The advantages of using LEDS are that they have a 50,000 to 100,000 hour life span, they consume very little electricity, they instantly light up, LED lights do not emit UV rays, they are durable to   vibrations they do not contain any mercury and LED emits light from any part of the light spectrum. The disadvantages of using LED lighting are that light is distributed directly instead of evenly compared to incandescent and fluorescent bulbs; it is very expensive to buy LED lights, they could cause light pollution in an environment because LEDs produce a lot of white light and LEDs are sensitive to heat. LED lighting is still currently being researched today to find out better methods to utilise the light from LEDs. An article from The Independent newspaper states The Indian government hopes to remedy this situation, which affects 112,000 rural villages across the country, over the next decade. The solution is a combination of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and solar power. The former are more efficient than light bulbs the power required to light one conventional 100W bulb can now light an entire village and the latter allows electricity to be stored in batteries and provides lighting where there is no grid supply. Both LEDs and solar panels can also take the rough and tumble of village life: having few moving parts, they are very durable. (Independent, 2006) It is evident to see from this statement that the progress of utilising light from LEDs is positive; however this is not something that can be generalised to a greater population at this current time due to economics. A journal published from the Philips Research Centre shows an experiment on LED light sources and modelling for practical control systems for LEDs. (Subramanian Muthu, 2002) states The recent improvements in high-power light emitting diodes (LED) technology with 100+ lumens per LED chip and efficacy exceeding that of incandescent lamps brings the solid-state lighting close to a reality. An LED light source made of Red, Green and Blue (RGB) LEDs can provide a compact light source with unique features such as instant colour variability. In this paper, we highlight the issues that introduce the variability in the colour point and present feedback control schemes to overcome these problems. (Subramanian Muthu, 2002) The journal concluded with: RGB-LEDs have enormous potential in lighting applications. The major issue to be resolved is control and maintenance of the white point. This issue arises from the variation in LED wavelength and lumen output with temperature, drive current and time. Further complications arise due to the wide spread in the performance parameters of nominally identical LEDs. In this paper we have presented solutions to these issues using electronic feedback control of the light output of the LEDs. (Subramanian Muthu, 2002) A journal on Fundamental Analysis for Visible-Light Communication System Using LED Lights states LED is more advantageous than the existing incandescent in terms of life expectancy, high tolerance to humidity, low power consumption, and minimal heat generation lighting Our group has proposed and optical wireless communication system that employs white LEDs for indoors wireless networks (8)-(11). (Nakagawa, 2004) The journal concludes In visible-light communication system, the LED lights are distributed within a room and the irradiance of light is wide for function of lighting equipment. Therefore, the intersymbol interference depended on the data rate and the FOW of receiver.   (Nakagawa, 2004) A technical report on Energy Savings Estimates of Light Emitting Diodes in Niche Lighting Applications from the U.S. Department of energy focuses on the energy performance of LED lighting systems within different sectors such as, residential lighting, traffic lighting, retail lighting and office under shelf lighting. the document states that A type of task lighting, LED office undershelf lighting systems have been introduced on the market as replacements for T12 and T8 fluorescent products used in the commercial offices. LED office undershelf lights have the potential to save 1.37 TWh/yr if the entire market shifted to 2007 LED technology, equal to 14.8 TBtu/yr of primary energy consumption. This amounts to about 20% of the annual consumption of one large (1000 MW) electric power plant or the annual electricity consumption of one hundred thousand U.S. households.(U.S. Department of Energy, 2008 pp. 50) The report also states that fluorescent lamps, T8s, and T12s are the types of lamps that are commonly used in an office environment. These fluorescent lighting systems have a fixture efficiency of less than 40%.   This follows on to the average number of hours artificial lights operate for. Office undershelf lighting systems operate for an average of 2000 hours per year, amounting to about 5.5 hours per day or 8 hours per work day. (U.S. Department of Energy, 2008 pp. 51) This would bring on maintenance costs for the building owner due to bulb replacements. The life span of LED lighting systems is far greater than fluorescent lamps, which in turn would reduce regular maintenance. The annual energy comsuption for 53 million office undershelf lighting systems consume 3.43 TWh/yr of electricity in the U.S. At the moment LED lighting systems are still new to the market and have not penetrated the market enough to calculate the actual energy savings; however LED lighting systems have the potential to save 1.37 TWh/yr of electricity if LED lights completely replaced fluorescent lighting systems. (U.S. Department of Energy, 2008 pp. 52) (DiLouie, 2006) Points that LEDs are solid state devices that produce light by passing a current through semiconductor chips which are housed in a reflector, which is